Katelyn Commented on the Literature Review of Group 3.
Katelyn Commented on the Literature Review of Group 4.
Environment and
Context in Adult Learning
Katelyn R. Neary
Ball State University
Abstract
This literature review will examine
the environment and context in adult learning, which will then contribute to a
program investigation and syllabus design. The emphasis of this review is to
gain a better understanding of the topic, while identifying themes related to
the topic. An introduction regarding the topic and briefly about the background
will be discussed along with a purpose statement. The overall objective of this
course is to design a syllabus that provides educators with a reliable,
consistent, and effective approach to learning environments. A discussion of
implications will be provided to demonstrate how practitioners can effectively
apply them in practice. Directly following the conclusion Table 1.1- Summary of the Literature Review is
provided.
Environment
and Context in Adult Learning
Introduction
Upon
analyzing the subject of adult learning it is imperative to understand the
impact of environment and context. In the past, individuals have ignored
environment and context components until they presented a barrier to learning;
furthermore, having remained invisible and out of consciousness until they
become unsupportive or problematic. There is a need to learn to think
critically about our learning environment and context before they become
problematic (MacKeracher, 2004). The purpose of this paper is to explore the
environment and context in relation to adult learning, the themes related, and
how to apply them with implications in practice.
Environment and Context Themes
Five components are identified as
the main contributors to an environment:
1) The physical environment- role of ergonomics
and technology of learning
2) The cultural environment- the invisible
nature and role of culture in learning
3) The power environment- the role of
power in teaching- learning interactions
4) The knowledge environment- the role of
hegemony and nature of assumptions
5) The ‘real life’ environment- the role
of context and situation in learning (MacKeracher, 2004).
Support for
adult learners is provided through a learning environment that meets both
physical and psychological needs. Such a learning environment is also essential
in successful partnerships between learners and instructors (Imel, 1998). The
goal should be to develop an atmosphere in which adult learners feel both safe
and challenged, with learners encouraged to become active participants in the
teaching/learning process, with some degree of mutual involvement in the
determination of instructional objectives (Biswalo, 2001).
General Themes of Environment and Context in Learning
The Physical Environment
The
physical environment generally refers to anything affecting the physical
comfort and well-being of both learners and facilitator. The term ‘ergonomics’ refers
to the study of factors modifying the efficiency of persons in their working
environment; we consider the learning environment as a working environment. The
ergonomics of the environment can be affected by a number of factors including:
comfort of chairs and tables, sound quality, light and sound quality, and air
quality (MacKeracher, 2004).
Each
aspect of ergonomics is very important and can be crucial to the learning
environment. The study titled, “Quality of learning facilities and learning
environment: Challenges for teaching and learning in Kenya’s public
universities” found that improvement in quality of educational facilities is
important for all interested in enhancing student learning and learning
environment anywhere (Ndirangu, 2011). If the educational facility is not provided
a good environment, how can individuals be expected to learn? Especially when
considering adult learners.
Research
by Grill (2003) found that adult educators consider the relationship between
natural settings and learning, they need to expand their understanding of what
a learning environment encompasses and what a role it plays in learning (Grill,
2003).
The
physical environment may have been overlooked in the past and not perceived as
having that big of an impact on learning outcomes. The study titled, “Space
Matters: The impact of formal learning environments on student learning” found that
physical space alone can improve student learning even beyond students’
abilities as measured by standardized scores. Advocates of designing and
redesigning spaces that are more conducive to learning claim that benefits to
teaching and learning practices and outcomes outweigh the short-term costs;
furthermore by promoting constructive firms if active learning, encouraging
pedagogical, innovation, improving conceptual learning and increasing overall
levels of student engagement (Brooks, 2011).
Even
technology is considered a component of the physical learning environment.
Technology can apply many advantages and disadvantages to a physical
environment. Caution must be taken when considering technology. Some technology
might only appeal to one learning style, equipment repairs, malfunctions, and
other difficulties must be considered. Brooks (2011) study also revealed, students
taking the course in a technologically enhanced environment conducive to active
learning techniques outperformed their peers who were taking the same course in
a more traditional class room setting. The evidence suggests strongly that
technologically enhanced learning environments independent of all other
factors, have a significant and positive impact on student learning (Brooks,
2011).
The Cultural Environment
Culture
is made up of contexts, some of which are invisible to surroundings while
others are well defined. The contexts derive from the cultural and social
expectations that control and direct how people relate and work in various
environments. Our culture is an integral part of our model of reality. Derived
from various groups such as- family, community, workplace, religion, race, age,
gender, language, ethnicity, sexual orientation, profession or occupation and
so on (MacKeracher, 2004).When individuals surround themselves solely with
others from their culture and no one else, culture can be taken for granted. We
become unconscious to our similar surroundings and only notice a difference
when introduced to an individual who does not share the same culture.
Findings
from Papageongi et al. (2010) study titled, ‘institutional culture and
learning’ suggest that the context of learning and the prevailing institutional
culture are related to student approaches to learning performance (Papageongi,
et al., 2010).
Learners
approach each learning task with a set of personal beliefs, motivations and
conceptions about the subject area and about knowledge itself (Biswalo, 2001). A
learning situation, encouraging diversity and cultural pluralism by emphasizing
differences can lead to stereotyping and the creation of other-ness. A sense of
relatedness is central to sustaining a healthy, productive classroom
environment (Bowman, 2011).
Individual’s
fundamental frame of reference is transformed, and a higher consciousness,
awareness or value is attained when taken-for-granted beliefs are challenged.
As a result of this personal confrontation the individual becomes ‘critically’
aware of [their] own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and
assess their relevance for making an interpretation. (Mezirow, 1978).
The
study, “Assessment: The keys to creating spaces that promote learning”
confirmed that academic engagement was encouraged by learning spaces that were
comfortable, open, flexible, and appealing to their emotions. Students react
positively to spaces that treat them with respect, that are serious, and that
encourage integration with other students and faculty Campus culture, social
culture and environment press (the notion that environments shape individuals
and thus influence their behavior within specific contexts) influence the
effectiveness of learning spaces (Hunley & Schaller, 2009).
The
study, “Language Experience Changes Subsequent Learning” found that language
modeled paring preferences with the linguistic stimuli only. Although, the
Korean individuals had received extensive formal explicit training in English
and lived in English-speaking environments, they exhibited statistical learning
biases congruent with their native language. Findings suggest that mechanisms
implicated in language across the lifespan and experience with languages may
affect cognitive processes and later learning (Onnis, & Thiessen, 2013).
Legitimate
peripheral participation explains both the development of knowledgably skilled
identities in practice and reproduction and transformation of communities in
practice. This involved the production of changing persons and communities of
practice, center to which is participation as a way of learning- to bother
absorbing and being absorbed- in the ‘culture’ of the community of practice (Hodge
et al., 2011).
The
study, “Circle Talks as Situated Experimental Learning: Context, Identity, and
Knowledgeability in “Learning from Reflection” indicated participants in the
event a) invoked different contextual frames that b) implicated them in various
identity positions, which c) affected how they could express their knowledge.
These features together worked together to generate socially shared meanings
that jointly achieve conceptualization. The analysis supports the claim that
participants generate new knowledge in reflection, but challenges
individualistic and cognitive assumptions regarding how this occurs(Seaman
& Ashwin, 2006).This reveals that knowledge can be understood as socially
shared in relation to how learning and identity formation are correlative
mechanism.
Flexible
models of learning for adults allow them to make choices and contextualize
their learning in a manner appropriate to their own professional practice while
also developing as a member of a learning community (Cornelius, Gordon, &
Ackland, 2011).
Power Environment
Each
adult learner and facilitator has their own culture- set of beliefs, values,
assumptions, customs, meanings, behaviors- as well as daily responsibilities
and problems. Individuals bring all of these different items with them were
ever they are and it shapes them as a person, student, family member, member of
society, etc. Some prefer to ‘hide’ these implications and try to minimize
their impact in one’s life, but it is impossible to completely oust them. In
Contrast, other individuals wear their ‘heart on their sleeve’ and have no
reservations with sharing anything about themselves to others. According to
Mackeracher, the resulting interactions among individuals create a learning
context in which power, its sources and uses, become crucial elements (MacKeracher,
2004).
Power
can be measured by the concept of ‘voice’ pertaining to an individual;
furthermore, as the power of one’s voice increases in an environment
empowerment, knowledge and personal development grows. The facilitator should
try to allow students to have as much or little ‘voice’ and power in class as
they prefer. Even if a student doesn’t have a large physical voice, they should
still feel that they have power with-in the context of the class environment.
One way facilitators can create a more powerful environment would be through
creation of a supportive environment.
The
study, “Improving Classroom Quality with the RULER Approach to Social and
Emotional Learning: Proximal and Distal Outcomes” revealed emotional literacy
training and development have profound importance in creating engaging,
empowering and productive learning environments (Hagelskamp, Brackett, Rivers,
& Salovey, 2013).
Support
for adult learners is provided through a learning environment that meets both
their physical and psychological needs. Such a learning environment is also an
essential element in successful partnership between learners and instructors (Imel,
1998). The goal should be to develop an atmosphere in which adult learners feel
both safe and challenged at the same time, with learners encouraged to become
active participants in the teaching learning process, with some degree of
mutual involvement in the determination of instructional objective (Biswalo,
2001).
Studies
on emotional literacy training and development have found the importance in
creating engaging, empowering and productive learning environments. (Hagelskamp,
Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, 2013).
In
an ineffective learning environment, some learners may experience a degree of
anxiety around the fear of appearing foolish or exposing themselves to failure.
For example, some learner’s fear that their questions will disclose their ‘ignorance’
or will indicate dissatisfaction, and assume that an obligation of compliance
is necessary if they wish to maintain an amicable relationship with the
instructor/facilitator (Biswalo, 2001). This is why the facilitators’ job is
critical to create an open and positive environment for students.
If
facilitators provide a proper power environment it could have a tremendous
impact on the learning experience of students. To do this one should consider
using Cross’s Characteristics of Adults as Learners (CAL) model which consists
of two classes of variables: personal characteristics and situational
characteristics. Personal characteristics include: aging, life phases and
development stages. These personal characteristics can impact decision-making
skills, reasoning, vocabulary, marriage, job changes, retirement, eyesight,
hearing and reaction time. Situational characteristics consist of part-time
versus full-time learning and administration of learning (for example
schedules, locations, procedures). The CAL model suggests the following
principles when designing learning programs for adults:
1. Adult learning
programs should capitalize on the experience of participants;
2. Adult learning
programs should adapt to the aging limitations of the participants;
3. Adults should be
challenged to move to increasingly advanced stages of personal development;
4. Adults should have
as much choice as possible in the availability and organization of learning programs
(Cross, 1981).
Results
from the study titled, “An exploration of Biggs constructive alignment in course
design and its impact on students’ learning approaches” suggested regardless of
individual differences, students would adjust their learning approaches and
study behaviors in response to the classroom teaching and learning environment.
Students in more ‘constructively aligned courses’ were more likely to adopt a deep
learning approaches and less likely to use surface learning approaches (Wang,
Su, Cheung, Wong, & Kwong, 2013).
Knowledge Environment
The
theory of knowledge can be defined by the term epistemology, which was coined
in 1856 by Scottish philosopher James F. Ferrier The theory of knowledge is related
to adult learning and how the study of validity, methods, and scope affect each
individual learner (Epistemology, n.d.). As the study of knowledge,
epistemology is concerned with the following questions:
·
What are necessary and sufficient conditions of
knowledge?
·
What are its sources?
·
What is its structure, and what are its limits?
(Steup, 2013).
Each
individuals has their own perception and opinion related to epistemology;
therefore, it is difficult and impossible to predict ones epistemology or what
is included in it and why. Knowledge systems are extremely complex with
countless of components; furthermore, when evaluating these on an individual
bases to examine their impact on a learning environment it is not one
unpretentious process.
There
are however some characteristics that can be applied to existing epistemologies
unarguably across the board, these involve development, significance, local
knowledge systems and limitations.
Without
exception all knowledge systems are developed; furthermore, how it developed or
why is based on individual perception. Development could be related to a
conglomerate of components or a single phenomenon. Regardless of the inception
each knowledge system has been affected by local resources, natural phenomena,
and interactions.
Significance
of knowledge systems varies depending on the individual. Powerful systems can
explain more, provide better predictions, and offer knowers more strategies for
responding to future phenomena. Some are powerful enough to co-opt the
knowledge found in less powerful systems, giving back little except oppression
(Mackeracher, 2004).
MacKeracher
provides an example to explain this concept by using the French and English
explorers and settlers that reached North America, their knowledge systems
siphoned what was considered useful from the knowledge systems of the Native
tribes and ignored what was considered useless. White settlers learned to hunt
animals and cultivate local plants without also learning the cultural and
ethical principles guiding the judicious use of such knowledge. The settlers
viewed Native knowledge about herbal remedies
as a kind of witchcraft and therefore suspect. We are only now learning
the value of Native knowledge (MacKeracher, 2004).
Local
knowledge systems illustrate the notion that we can figure out what group or
groups were responsible for developing the system in the historical past and
are responsible for maintaining and revising the present (MacKeracher, 2004). For
a system to form it has to be based on a phenomenon or phenomena.
Knowledge
systems have limitations or ‘patterns of ignorance’ based on overlooking some
phenomena, deleting, and distorting others, and making inappropriate and
incorrect assumptions about such things as the type of person best able to
create, maintain, and revise knowledge and the type of knowledge most
acceptable. Patterns of ignorance are more apparent to those standing outside
or on the margins of the knowledge system than those standing inside it (MacKeracher,
2004).
An
epistemology of adult learning has been challenged and one of the concepts
driving this movement is andragogy. The foundation of the term is based upon
the assumption that adults and children learn differently. Andragogy translates
into leader of adults; furthermore,
andragogical approaches should employ methods that recognize the
characteristics that distinguish adults from children (Finn, 2011).
Based
upon the andragogical model, it is paramount that adult educators keep these
widely accepted assumptions in mind as programs and curricula are developed for
adult learners. These principles are:
·
Adults are self-directed
·
Adults draw on life experiences
·
Social roles help to determine an adults
readiness to learn
·
Adults are more problem-centered than
subject-centered
·
Adults are internally motivated to learn
Adults
need to know why they need to learn what they are learning. Considering
knowledge systems and all that can be derived from them. A facilitator can help
with the impact of knowledge systems to an extent, and should try to help
alleviate uncomfortable and visible things. Among the consequences is that
educators need to be sensitive to the experiences of the individual and how
this might necessitate individualized teaching and learning strategies. It is
critical that facilitators of adults become familiar with the individual
learners and their experiences. Experience can have an impact on the types of
learning strategies that are employed in the adult education classroom.
Individual learner’s experiences may enhance instruction as learners
participate in group and peer-helping activities (Finn, 2011).
Finn
et. al (2011) goes on to say, a key to fostering learner success is being an
empathetic instructor. This involves striking a balance between activities that
are too challenging, which can lead to frustration and possibly dropping a program,
and those that are too easy that may lead to boredom or disinterest (Finn,
2011). Becoming familiar with students and their abilities and experiences can
be achieved multiple ways including pre-assessments, interviews, exercises,
etc. Evaluations can lead to creating relevant and helpful understandings that
can increase motivation of adult learners.
The ‘Real Life’ Environment
As
noted earlier, the roles of context and situation in learning represents the
‘real life’ environment. The real life type of environment will enable students
to be prepared for practical situations (MacKeracher, 2004).To prepare
participants for practical application instructors have started an
instructional intervention as far as helping accommodate students with the
transition from the class room to the work place or ‘real world’. To do so
instructors have used various methods of instruction one such as using real
cases of work place scenarios.
Past
studies have been conducted on the experimental model to emphasize students’
learning experiences in ‘real cases’ of workplace problem solving. Their
emphasis is on filling the student ‘learning gap’, between the abstract
conceptualization and reflection of the university and the practical experience
and experiment evident in industry (Hodge, Wright, Barraket, Scott, Melville,
& Richardson, 2011).
Any
instructional intervention in problem-solving learning may, to some extent,
direct learners to improve knowledge skills (Kim, 2012).
The
study titled, “ Problem solving learning environments and assessment: A
knowledge space theory approach” concluded that the time has come to more
frequently integrate assessment components into problem solving learning
environments (PSLEs) and to use problem solving and simulation environments as
part of assessment environments. This will contribute to making assessment more
authentic and less obtrusive and making PSLEs more relevant in form educational
settings (Reimann, Kickermeier-Rust, & Albert, 2013).
The
very idea of situated conceptions of learning has a built-in
evoked-by-the-context component. While his limits the utility and
generalizability of the scale, it enhances its effectiveness in the contexts for
which it has been designed (Trigwell & Ashwin, 2006).
Trigwell
& Ahwin’s (2006) study titled, “An exploratory study of situated
conceptions of learning and learning environments” suggested that situated
conceptions, like prior experiences of learning, may be a crucial indicator of
learning approach and outcomes of learning (Trigwell& Ashwin, 2006).
Situated conceptions are seen to be an integral part of the process of learning
and are likely to be strongly related to approaches to learning than generic
conceptions of learning.
Kolb’s
model pertaining to the cycle of learning can be used to justify the importance
of situated learning. Kolb developed an experimental learning model which
illustrates four cyclical learning methods. The four different learning methods
include concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract
conceptualization, and active experimentation. In the model developed by Kolb,
learning starts with experience and concludes with new experiences while
remaining an internal process. While experiential learning models primarily
focus on individual’s developmental change, situated learning theories
emphasize the contextual or situated nature of learning as a result of
co-participation among others within communities of practice (Hodge et al.,
2011).
Hodge
et. al, (2011) found that practice-based learning exchanges clearly provide a
powerful and highly valued learning experience for students. Situated practices
and the production and reproduction of local knowledge’s’ lie at the very
centre of learning. In terms of preparing for learning exchanges, academics
could be trained to become theoretically savvy in experience-led schemas. These
concepts could then be introduced into coursework programs to better prepare
students to be self-aware.. when partaking in workplace activities. Learning-
whether emanating from the university or the workplace- entail a myriad of
characteristics, process and functions that defy categorization (Hodge et al.,
2011).
Implications
The
significance of environment and context recently has become an eminent topic in
various industries, primarily education. Previously, learning was based
exclusively on the individual; furthermore, little consideration was given to
the effect of the environment and context within the learning process. Now,
there are numerous published studies, articles, books, and models induced by
the importance of environment and context within learning.
By
considering the effect of the environment and context within adult learning
many beneficial findings have been acquired complimentary to students and
facilitators. These findings are applicable to contribute to learning
environments’ of all types of learners. The emphasis put on this subject, the
more studies, reports, and findings will be conducted; therefore, allowing
instructors to provide an improved and comfortable learning environment.
The
current literature suggests to effectively apply these findings to learning and
the environment and context in which that happen, caution should be taken
because of the large number of factors within each environment. Creating a
conducive learning environment to adult learner’s consideration to the
following environments’ including: the physical, cultural, power, knowledge, and
‘real life’. A mass amount of information and components are associated with
each environment; therefore, it is impossible to be aware and understand all
implications, restrictions and components that can affect an environment. It is
necessary to be aware and active in recognizing different environment
observations to help enhance the experience of the learner and facilitator.
To
maximize the education of adult learners, evaluating the environments’ and
context are critical. Considering adult learners have various reasons for
continuing their education, different considerations should be taken by a
facilitator. There are distinguished characteristics of adults that contribute
to their learning preference especially when being compared to children learners.
The difference between adult learners and children learners is defined by the
term ‘andragogy’. This term provides information about how to best meet the
needs of adult learners. After reviewing the literature, my conclusions about
adult characteristics include:
·
Adults are self-directed
·
Adults draw on life experiences
·
Social roles help to determine an adults
readiness to learn
·
Adults are more problem-centered than
subject-centered
·
Adults are internally motivated.
Taking
these characteristics and using them to understand adult learners is a great
way to help provide an effective and efficient learning environment. Adult
educators need to be respective and accepting of these features and reference
them continuously through their time as an educator.
CONCLUSION
This
paper has explained the various components of the environment and context;
furthermore, also showing the relationship between adult learning and the
environment and context. Numerous facets should be considered when
distinguishing a credible learning environment. Contributions to an environment
are vital to providing an open, comfortable, practical, reliable, and
successful educational setting.
After, reviewing the literature it is apparent
that the themes mentioned in this paper are essential foundation as far as when
making considerations for learners.. The themes provide a basis for a
facilitator to use to be more effective and efficient with students. Various
studies and research findings report different ways to obtain good rapport as
well as environment. To improve the physical environment- taking into
consideration ergonomics and its impact on individuals could be one approach to
improve learning. Considering the cultural environment and contexts within
including what is visible and what is not visible can impact a learning environment.
Being aware of the prominent impact culture brings to any environment can be
used positively to increase cultural awareness. The power environment- takes
into account each individuals ‘voice’ along with the facilitators instructional
method, which should provide support to each student to encourage them to
express their views. The knowledge environment- recognizing the different
factors of epistemology and its impact on individuals. The ‘real-life’
environment- demonstrates the practicality for and applicability of
instruction. Overall, numerous research findings support the importance of each
theme in relation to environments and context. Each theme makes its own distinctive
contribution and should not be dismissed in any context.
Table 1.1- Summary of Literature Review
Ideas
|
The
Main Themes
|
Implications
|
Physical Environment
|
Physical Environment- all
environments’ affected by ergonomics
|
Considerations should be made
to reduce impact. Classroom should encourage learning not discourage.
Preparation and back-up plans
are essential. Try to minimize affect ergonomics- understand you can’t
completely eliminate all.
|
Cultural Environment
|
Make best effort to create
open and comfortable environment for all (students & facilitator).
Visible and invisible contexts can make impact and hard to control or
acknowledge.
|
Awareness and acceptable that
all individuals are different. Providing a comfortable environment for all to
use their ‘voice’ as open and freely without judgment.
|
Power Environment
|
All individuals have
power-including both the facilitator and participants- The impact of power
within the environment can be distinguished by various elements- mainly
facilitator.
|
Facilitators should encourage
individuals to express themselves and
their knowledge, experiences among others. Balance is needed to ensure all
students feel sense of power as well as the facilitator.
|
Knowledge Environment
|
Each student is their own
resource of knowledge. Therefore each has particular knowledge based on
(experience, age, gender, race, upbringing, career, etc.)
|
Try to get information on
students prior to course beginning- using questionnaire- about background, education,
etc. To be more aware and prepare in advance if needed. Surroundings (other individual’s
feelings, experience, etc.) in the class room should be considered. Many
different perspectives will provide a plethora of ideas and viewpoints. Facilitator must maintain a
positive and safe environment.
|
Table
1.1- Summary of Literature Review
Continued
Ideas
|
The
Main Themes
|
Implications
|
‘Real-Life’ Environment
|
Provides students with the
ability to apply instruction outside of classroom and to real life problem
solving.
|
Preparing students with
actual relevant assignments that could be applicable in a workplace setting.
Gives students confidence for future in workplace setting that cannot be
achieved using a traditional classroom approach.
|
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